HISTORIC ERA OF INDIA

HERE STARTS THE ERA

The history of India is one of the grand epics of world history and can be best described in the words of India's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as "a bundle of contradictions held together by strong but invisible threads". Indian history can be characterized as a work in progress, a continuous process of reinvention that can eventually prove elusive for those seeking to grasp its essential character. 

The history of this astonishing sub continent dates back to almost 75000 years ago with the evidence of human activity of Homo sapiens. The Indus Valley Civilization which thrived in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300- 1300 BCE was the first major civilization in India.

Following is the history of India through the Ages:

The Pre Historic Era

The Stone Age:

1. The Stone Age began 500,000 to 200,000 years ago and recent finds in Tamil Nadu (at C. 75000 years ago, before and after the explosion of the Toba Volcano) indicate the presence of the first anatomically humans in the area. Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back to two million years have been discovered in the Northwestern part of the country.
2. The Bronze Age:
   The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent dates back to around 3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilization. Historically part of ancient India, it is one of the world's earliest, urban civilizations, along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Inhabitants of this era developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin.

Early Historic Period

1. Vedic Period:
   The Vedic Period is distinguished by the Indo-Aryan culture which was associated with the texts of Vedas, sacred to Hindus, and that were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts, next to those in Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Vedic era in the subcontinent lasted from about 1500-500 BCE, laying down the foundation of Hinduism and other cultural dimensions of early Indian society. The Aryans laid down Vedic civilization all over North India, particularly in the Gangetic Plain.
2. Mahajanapadas:
   This period saw the second major rise in urbanization in India after the Indus valley Civilization. The word "maha" means great and the word "janapada" means foothold of a tribe. In the later Vedic Age a number of small kingdoms or city states had mushroomed across the subcontinent and also find mention in early Buddhist and Jain literature as far back as 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, sixteen "republics" or Mahajanapadas has been established, namely; Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji),Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti,Gandhara, and Kamboja.
3. 
   
   
   • Persian and Greek Conquests:
     Much of the Northwest subcontinent (currently Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in C. 520 BCE under the rule of Darius the Great and remained so for two centuries. In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire, when he reached the Northwest frontier of the Indian subcontinent he defeated King Porus and conquered most of Punjab.
   • Maurya Empire:
     The Maurya Empire, ruled by the Mauryan Dynasty from 322-185 BCE was a geographically extensive and mighty political and military empire in ancient India, established in the subcontinent by Chandragupta Maurya in Magadha (present day Bihar) and was it further thrived under Ashoka the Great.
4. The Mughal Empire:
   In 1526, Babur, a descendant of Timur and Gengis Kahn from Fergana Valler (present day Uzbekistan) swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire which covered modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent till 1600; after which it went into decline after 1707 and was finally defeated during India's first war of Independence in 1857.
5. Colonial Era:
   From the 16th century, European powers such as Portugal, Netherlands, France and the United Kingdom established trading posts in India. Later, they took advantage of internal conflicts and established colonies in the country.
6. The British Rule:
   The British Rule in India began with the coming of the British East India Company in 1600 and continued till Indian independence from British rule in 1947.
7. The Indian Independence Movement and Mahatma Gandhi:
   In the 20th century Mahatma Gandhi led millions of people in a national campaign of non-violent civil disobedience to contain independence from the British.
8. Independence and Partition:
   Religious tension between the Hindus and Muslims had been brewing over the years, especially in provinces like Punjab and West Bengal. The Muslims were a minority and they did not feel secure in the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government and hence made them wary of independence. All through this Mahatama Gandhi called for unity among the two religious groups. The British, whose economy had been weakened after World War 2, decided to leave India and participated in the formation of an interim government. The British Indian territories gained independence in 1947, after being partitioned into the Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan.

MUGHAL EMPIRE IN INDIA

The Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire was an empire that at its greatest territorial extent ruled parts of what is todays Afghanistan, Pakistan and most of the  Indian Subcontinent, then known as Hindustan, between 1526 and 1707. The empire was founded by the Timurid leader Babur in 1526,  when he defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Delhi Sultans at the First Battle of Panipat. "Mughal" is the Persian word for "Mongol". The  religion of the Mughals was Islam.

The territory was largely conquered by the Afghan Sher Shah Suri during the time of Humayun, the second Mughal ruler, but under Akbar  it grew considerably, and continued to grow until the end of Aurangzeb's rule. Jahangir, the son of Akbar, ruled the empire between  1605–1627. In October 1627, Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, son of Jahangir, "succeeded to the throne", where he "inherited a vast and  rich empire" in India; and "at mid-century this was perhaps the greatest empire in the world". Shah Jahan commissioned the famous Taj  Mahal (between 1630–1653), in Agra.

The Mughals faced stiff competition from the Marathas, and after Aurangzeb died in 1707, the empire started to decline in actual power,  giving way to the rise of the Hindu Maratha Empire. The Mughals however managed to maintain some trappings of power in the India for  another 150 years. In 1739 it was defeated by an army from Persia led by Nadir Shah. In 1756 an army of Ahmed Shah Abdali took Delhi  again. The British Empire finally dissolved it in 1857, immediately prior to which it existed only at the sufferance of the British East India  Company.

Religion

The Mughal ruling class were liberal-minded Muslims, although most of the subjects of the Empire were Hindu. Although Babur founded the Empire, the dynasty remained unstable (and was even exiled) until the reign of Akbar, who was not only of liberal disposition but also intimately acquainted, since birth, with the mores and traditions of India. Under Akbar's rule, the court abolished the jizya (the poll-tax on non-Muslims) and abandoned use of the lunar Muslim calendar in favor of a solar calendar more useful for agriculture. One of Akbar's most unusual ideas regarding religion was Din-i-Ilahi ("Faith-of-God" in English), which was an eclectic mix of Hinduism, panthiestic versions of Sufi Islam,Zoroastrianism and Christianity. It was proclaimed the state religion until his death. These actions however met with stiff opposition from the Muslim clergy. However, the orthodoxy regained influence only three generations later, with Aurangzeb, known for upholding doctrines of orthodox Islam; this last of the Great Mughals retracted nearly all the liberal policies of his forbears.

The Great Mughal Emperors
Emperor	Reign start	Reign end
Babur	1526	1530
Humayun	1530	1540
Interregnum *	1540	1555
Humayun	1555	1556
Akbar	1556	1605
Jahangir	1605	1627
Shah Jahan	1627	1658
Aurangzeb	1658	1707

Establishment and reign of Babur

In the early 16th century, Muslim armies consisting of Mongol, Turkic, Persian, and Afghan warriors invaded India under the leadership of the Timurid prince Zahir-ud-Din-Mohammad Babur. Babur was the great-grandson of Mongol conqueror Timur Lenk (Timur the Lame, from which the Western name Tamerlane is derived), who had invaded India in 1398 before retiring to Samarkand who himself claimed descent from the Mongol ruler, Genghis Khan. Babur was driven from Samarkand by the Uzbeks and initially established his rule in Kabul in 1504. Later, taking advantage of internal discontent in the Delhi sultanate under Ibrahim Lodi, and following an invitation from Daulat Khan Lodi (governor of Punjab) and Alam Khan (uncle of the Sultan), Babur invaded India in 1526.

Babur, a seasoned military commander, entered India in 1526 with his well-trained veteran army of 12,000 to meet the sultan's huge but unwieldy and disunited force of more than 100,000 men. Babur defeated the Lodi sultan decisively at the first Battle of Panipat. Employing gun carts, moveable artillery, and superior cavalry tactics, Babur achieved a resounding victory and the Sultan was killed. A year later (1527) he decisively defeated, at the battle of Khanwa, a Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sanga of Chittor. A third major battle was fought in 1529 when, at the battle of Gogra, Babur routed the joint forces of Afghans and the sultan of Bengal. Babur died in 1530 at Agra before he could consolidate his military gains. He left behind as his chief legacy a set of descendants who would fulfill his dream of establishing an empire in the Indian subcontinent.

Early Sikh Gurus' perception of the Mughal Empire Babur's reign was witnessed by the first Sikh Guru Nanak Dev Ji. His Raag Asa Guru records Nanak's observations and thoughts in his poems. It says:

"Having attacked Khuraasaan, Babar terrified Hindustan. The Creator Himself does not take the blame, but has sent the Mugal as the messenger of death. There was so much slaughter that the people screamed. Didn't You feel compassion, Lord?" pg (360)  On the condition of Hindu women in Babur's rule:

"Those heads adorned with braided hair, with their parts painted with vermilion - those heads were shaved with scissors, and their throats were choked with dust.They lived in palatial mansions, but now, they cannot even sit near the palaces.... ropes were put around their necks, and their strings of pearls were broken. Their wealth and youthful beauty, which gave them so much pleasure, have now become their enemies. The order was given to the soldiers, who dishonored them, and carried them away. If it is pleasing to God's Will, He bestows greatness; if is pleases His Will, He bestows punishment" pg(417-18)  On the nature of Mughal rule under Babur:

"First, the tree puts down its roots, and then it spreads out its shade above. The kings are tigers, and their officials are dogs; they go out and awaken the sleeping people to harass them. The public servants inflict wounds with their nails. The dogs lick up the blood that is spilled." Source: Rag Malar, (pg.1288)  Strangely enough, the land on which the Sikh Golden temple now stands, was actually donated by Mughal emperor Akbar.

Reign of Humayun

When Babur died, his son Humayun (1530–56) inherited a difficult task. He was pressed from all sides by a reassertion of Afghan claims to the Delhi throne and by disputes over his own succession. He fled to Persia, where he spent nearly ten years as an embarrassed guest of the Safavid court of Shah Tahmasp. During Sher Shah's reign, an imperial unification and administrative framework were established; this would be further developed by Akbar later in the century. In 1545, Humayun gained a foothold in Kabul with Safavid assistance and reasserted his Indian claims, a task facilitated by the weakening of Afghan power in the area after the death of Sher Shah Suri in May 1545. He took control of Delhi in 1555, but died within six months of his return, from a fall down the steps of his library.

Reign of Akbar

Humayun's untimely death in 1556 left the task of conquest and imperial consolidation to his thirteen-year-old son, Jalal-ud-Din Akbar (r.1556–1605). Following a decisive military victory at the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556, the regent Bayram Khan pursued a vigorous policy of expansion on Akbar's behalf. As soon as Akbar came of age, he began to free himself from the influences of overbearing ministers, court factions, and harem intrigues, and demonstrated his own capacity for judgment and leadership. A workaholic who seldom slept more than three hours a night, he personally oversaw the implementation of his administrative policies, which were to form the backbone of the Mughal Empire for more than 200 years. He continued to conquer, annex, and consolidate a far-flung territory bounded by Kabul in the northwest, Kashmir in the north, Bengal in the east, and beyond the Narmada River in central India.

Akbar built a walled capital called Fatehpur Sikri (Fatehpur means "town of victory") near Agra, starting in 1571. Palaces for each of Akbar's senior queens, a huge artificial lake, and sumptuous water-filled courtyards were built there. However, the city was soon abandoned and the capital was moved to Lahore in 1585. The reason may have been that the water supply in Fatehpur Sikri was insufficient or of poor quality; or, as some historians believe, that Akbar had to attend to the northwest areas of his empire and therefore moved his capital northwest. In 1599, Akbar shifted his capital back to Agra from where he reigned until his death.

Akbar adopted two distinct but effective approaches in administering a large territory and incorporating various ethnic groups into the service of his realm. In 1580 he obtained local revenue statistics for the previous decade in order to understand details of productivity and price fluctuation of different crops. Aided by Todar Mal, a hindu scholar, Akbar issued a revenue schedule that optimised the revenue needs of the state with the ability of the peasantry to pay. Revenue demands, fixed according to local conventions of cultivation and quality of soil, ranged from one-third to one-half of the crop and were paid in cash. Akbar relied heavily on land-holding zamindars to act as revenue-collectors. They used their considerable local knowledge and influence to collect revenue and to transfer it to the treasury, keeping a portion in return for services rendered. Within his administrative system, the warrior aristocracy (mansabdars) held ranks (mansabs) expressed in numbers of troops, and indicating pay, armed contingents, and obligations. The warrior aristocracy was generally paid from revenues of nonhereditary and transferable jagirs (revenue villages).

An astute ruler who genuinely appreciated the challenges of administering so vast an empire, Akbar introduced a policy of reconciliation and assimilation of Hindus (including Jodhabai, later renamed Mariam-uz-Zamani begum, the Hindu mother of his son and heir, Jahangir), who represented the majority of the population. He recruited and rewarded Hindu chiefs with the highest ranks in government; encouraged intermarriages between Mughal and Rajput aristocracy; allowed new temples to be built; personally participated in celebrating Hindu festivals such as Deepavali, or Diwali, the festival of lights; and abolished the jizya (poll tax) imposed on non-Muslims. Akbar came up with his own theory of "rulership as a divine illumination," enshrined in his new religion Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith), incorporating the principle of acceptance of all religions and sects. He encouraged widow re-marriage, discouraged child marriage, outlawed the practice of sati, and persuaded Delhi merchants to set up special market days for women, who otherwise were secluded at home.

By the end of Akbar's reign, the Mughal Empire extended throughout north India even south of the Narmada river. Notable exceptions were Gondwana in central India, which paid tribute to the Mughals, Assam in the northeast, and large parts of the Deccan. The area south of the Godavari river remained entirely out of the ambit of the mughals. In 1600, Akbar's Mughal empire had a revenue of £17.5 million. By comparison, in 1800, the entire treasury of Great Britain totalled £16 million.

Akbar's empire supported vibrant intellectual and cultural life. The large imperial library included books in Hindi, Persian, Greek, Kashmiri, English, and Arabic, such as the Shahnameh, Bhagavata Purana and the Bible. Akbar regularly sponsored debates and dialogues among religious and intellectual figures with differing views, and he welcomed Jesuit missionaries from Goa to his court. Akbar directed the creation of the Hamzanama, an artistic masterpiece that included 1400 large paintings.

Reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan

Mughal rule under Jahangir (1605–27) and Shah Jahan (1628–58) was noted for political stability, brisk economic activity, beautiful paintings, and monumental buildings. Jahangir married a Persian princess whom he renamed Nur Jehan (Light of the World), who emerged as the most powerful individual in the court besides the emperor. As a result, Persian poets, artists, scholars, and officers--including her own family members--lured by the Mughal court's brilliance and luxury, found asylum in India. The number of unproductive officers mushroomed, as did corruption, while the excessive Persian representation upset the delicate balance of impartiality at the court. Jahangir liked Hindu festivals but promoted mass conversion to Islam; he persecuted the followers of Jainism and even executed Guru Arjun Dev, the fifth saint-teacher of the Sikhs in 1606 for refusing to make changes to the Guru Granth Sahib (the Sikh holy book). The execution was not entirely for religious reasons; Guru Arjun Dev Ji supported Prince Khusro, another contestant to the Mughul throne in the civil war that developed after Akbar's death. Noor Jahan's abortive efforts to secure the throne for the prince of her choice led Shah Jahan to rebel against Jahangir in 1622. In that same year, the Persians took over Kandahar in southern Afghanistan, an event that struck a serious blow to Mughal prestige.

Between 1636 and 1646, Shah Jahan sent Mughal armies to conquer the Deccan and the lands to the northwest of the empire, beyond the Khyber Pass. Even though they aptly demonstrated Mughal military strength, these campaigns drained the imperial treasury. As the state became a huge military machine, causing the nobles and their contingents to multiply almost fourfold, the demands for revenue from the peasantry were greatly increased. Political unification and maintenance of law and order over wide areas encouraged the emergence of large centers of commerce and crafts--such as Lahore, Delhi, Agra, and Ahmadabad--linked by roads and waterways to distant places and ports.

The world-famous Taj Mahal was built in Agra during Shah Jahan's reign as a tomb for his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It symbolizes both Mughal artistic achievement and excessive financial expenditures at a time when resources were shrinking. The economic positions of peasants and artisans did not improve because the administration failed to produce any lasting change in the existing social structure. There was no incentive for the revenue officials, whose concerns were primarily personal or familial gain, to generate resources independent of what was received from the Hindu zamindars and village leaders, who, due to self-interest and local dominance, did not hand over the entirety of the tax revenues to the imperial treasury. In their ever-greater dependence on land revenue, the Mughals unwittingly nurtured forces that eventually led to the break-up of their empire.

Reign of Aurangzeb and decline of empire

The last of the great Mughals was Aurangzeb. During his fifty-year reign, the empire reached its greatest physical size but also showed unmistakable signs of decline. The bureaucracy had grown corrupt; the huge army used outdated weaponry and tactics. Aurangzeb restored Mughal military dominance and expanded power southward, at least for a while. Aurangzeb was involved in a series of protracted wars: against the Pathans in Afghanistan, the sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda in the Deccan, the Marathas in Maharashtra and the Ahoms in Assam. Peasant uprisings and revolts by local leaders became all too common, as did the conniving of the nobles to preserve their own status at the expense of a steadily weakening empire.

The increasing association of his government with Islam further drove a wedge between the ruler and his Hindu subjects. Contenders for the Mughal throne were many, and the reigns of Aurangzeb's successors were short-lived and filled with strife. The Mughal Empire experienced dramatic reverses as regional nawabs or governors broke away and founded independent kingdoms. In the war of 27 years from 1680 to 1707, the Mughals suffered several heavy defeats at the hands of the Marathas. They had to make peace with the Maratha armies, and Persian and Afghan armies invaded Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne in 1739.

Successors - "the lesser Mughals"

• Bahadur Shah I (Shah Alam I), b. October 14, 1643 at Burhanpur, ruler from 1707-1712, d. February 1712 in Lahore. 
• Jahandar Shah, b. 1664, ruler from 1712-1713, d. February 11, 1713 in Delhi. 
• Furrukhsiyar (b.1683, r.1713-1719, d.1719 at Delhi). 
• Rafi Ul-Darjat, ruler 1719, d. 1719 in Delhi. 
• Rafi Ud-Daulat (Shah Jahan II), ruler 1719, d. 1719 in Delhi. 
• Nikusiyar, ruler 1719, d. 1719 in Delhi. 
• Mohammed Ibrahim, ruler 1720, d. 1720 in Delhi. 
• Mohammed Shah, b. 1702, ruler from 1719-1720, 1720-1748, d. April 26, 1748 in Delhi. 
• Ahmad Shah Bahadur, b. 1725, ruler from 1748-1754, d. January 1775 in Delhi. 
• Alamgir II, b. 1699, ruler from 1754-1759, d. 1759. 
• Shah Jahan III, ruler 1760? 
• Shah Alam II, b. 1728, ruler from 1759-1806, d. 1806. 
• Akbar Shah II, b. 1760, ruler from 1806-1837, d. 1837. 

Bahadur Shah II aka Bahadur Shah Zafar, b. 1775 in Delhi, ruler from 1837-1857, d. 1862 in exile in Rangoon, Burma.  Present-day descendents: A few descendants of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, are known to be living in Delhi, Kolkata, and Hyderabad. The majority of direct descendants still carry the clan name Temur with four major branches today: Shokohane-Temur (Shokoh), Shahane-Temur (Shah), Bakshane-Temur (Baksh) and Salatine-Temur (Sultan). There is also a line of direct descendants who carry the name "Mirza", living in Delhi, Pakistan and England.

Contribution of Mughals to the Subcontinent

The first Mughal emperor Babur wrote in his diary Tuzk Babri: "Hindustan is a country which has few pleasures to recommend it.... Indians have no idea of the charms of friendly society, of frankly mixing together, or of familiar intercourse.... They have no horses, no good grapes, or musk melons, no good fruits, no ice or cold water, no good food or bread in their bazaars, no bath or colleges, no candles, no torches, not a candle stick." The Mughals were superior to their Indian counterparts in war but also considered themselves so culturally. They had taste for the fine things in life - for beautifully designed artifacts and the enjoyment and appreciation of cultural activities. However, the Hindus of India provided the Mughals with a richer philosophy and the plentiful spices and vegetarian options which were incorporated into modern Indian life. While the Mughals' superior position may have been appreciated, in reality, they probably borrowed as much as they gave. However, it could not be doubted that they introduced many changes to Indian society and culture, including:

• Centralised government which brought together many smaller kingdoms 
• Delegated government with respect for human rights 
• Persian art and culture amalgamated with native Indian art and culture 
• Started new trade routes to Arab and Turk lands 
• Mughalai cuisine 
• Urdu and Hindi languages were formed for common Muslims and Hindus respectively 
• Periods of great religious tolerance 
• A style of architecture 
• Landscape gardening 
• A system of education that took account of pupils' needs and culture

The Mughal Empire, 1526 to 1707

Mughal Emperors, 1526 - 1858

1526, May 27	Babur founds the Empire of Hind (usually referred to by historians as the Mughal Empire)
1540, May 17	Mughal rulers are expelled and superseded by the Afghan Suri dynasty
1555, Jul 23	Empire of Hind under the Mughal rulers restored
1600, Dec 31	East India Company was given monopoly privileges on all trade with the East Indies
1608	The Company's ships arrived at the port of Surat
1615	Jahangir granted the EIC the right to establish a factory at Surat
1717	EIC received a firman exempting the Company from the payment of custom duties in Bengal
1757	defeated the forces of the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daulah , at the Battle of Plassey
1773	Lord North's India Bill, known as the Regulating Act of 1773, provided for greater parliamentary control over the affairs of the Company and placed India under the rule of a Governor-General
1858, Mar 29	the last Mughal ruler is deposed
1858, Aug 2	U.K. Act of Parliament annexes the Empire, creating British India (effective 1 Nov 1858)

Emperors (title Padshah, sometimes Padshah-e Hind - Emperor of India)

Mughal dynasty

Ruled	Name	birth - death
1526 - 1530	Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur Mirza, (Babur)	**** - 1530
1530 - 1540	Humayun	**** - 1556
1556 - 1605	Akbar	**** - 1605
1605 - 1627	Jehangir	**** - ****
1628 - 1658	Shah Jehan	**** - 1666
1658, Jul 31 - 1707, Mar 2	Mohyi ad-Din Abu´l Mozaffar Mohammad Awrangzib Bahadur Alamgir Padshah-e Ghazi (Aurangzeb)	1618 - 1707
1707, Mar 14 - 1707, Apr 27	Qotb ad-Din Abu´l Fayaz Mohammad A`zam Shah Padshah-e Ghazi (continued as leader of rebellion until 18 Jun 1707)	1653 - 1707
1707, Apr 27 - 1712, Feb 27	Qotb ad-Din Abu´n Nasr Sayyed Mohammad Shah `Alam Bahadur Shah Padshah-e Ghazi	1643 - 1712
1707, Apr 27 - 1709, Jan 13	Mohammad Kam Bakhsh-e Dinpanah ebn Awrangzib `Alamgir Padshah (in rebellion)	1666 - 1709
1712, Feb 29 - 1712, Mar 17	Mohammad `Azim ash-Shan ebn Bahadur Shah Padshah	16** - 1712
1712, Feb 29 - 1712, Mar 28	Mohammad Rafi` ash-Shan ebn Bahadur Shah Padshah (in rebellion)	16** - 1712
1712, Feb 29 - 1712, Mar 27	Jahan Shah ebn Bahadur Shah Padshah "Khojestan Akhtar" (in rebellion)	16** - 1712
1712, Mar 30 - 1713, Jan 11	Mo`ezz ad-Din Abu´l Fath Mohammad Jahandar Shah Padshah	1661 - 1713
1713, Jan 11 - 1719, Mar 1	Mo`in ad-Din (or Jalal ad-Din) Abu´l Mozaffar Mohammad farrokhsiyar Padshah	1687 - 1719
1719, Mar 1 - 1719, Jun 7	Shams ad-Din Abu´l Barakat Soltan Mohammad Rafi` ad-Darjat Padshah-e Ghazi	1699 - 1719
1719, Mar 30 - 1719, Aug 13	Mohammad Shah Nikusiyar (in rebellion)
1719, Jun 8 - 1719, Sep 6	Mohammad Shah Jahan Sani Padshah	1700 - 1719
1719, Sep 28 - 1748, Apr 26	Naser ad-Din Abu´l Fath (from 1722 Abu´l-Mozaffar) Mohammad Shah Padshah-e Ghazi "Rawshan Akhtar"	1702 - 1748
1720, Oct 12 - 1720, Nov 19	Zahir ad-Din Abu´l Fath Mohammad Ebrahim Shah Padshah (in rebellion)	**** - 1720
1748, Apr 29 - 1754, Jun 3	Mojahed ad-Din Abu´n Nasr Ahmad Shah Bahadur Padshah-e Ghazi	1725 - 1773
1754, Jun 3 - 1759, Nov 29	`Aziz ad-Din Abu´l-`Adl Mohammad Alamgir Padshah-e Ghazi	1699 -1759
1759, Dec 11 - 1759, Dec 25	Mohyi-e Millat (or Mohyi ad-Din) Shah Jahan Sani ebn Mohyi-e Sannat Mohammad
1759, Dec 25 - 1788, Aug 1	Jalal ad-Din Abu´l Mozaffar Mohammad Shah `Alam Padshah "Ham-e Din"	1728 - 1806
1788, Aug 1 - 1788, Oct 1	Mohammad Bidarbakht ebn Ahmad Shah
1788, Oct 16 - 1806, Nov 10	Jalal ad-Din Abu´l Mozaffar Mohammad Shah `Alam Padshah "Ham-e Din"	1728 - 1806
1806, Nov 18 - 1837, Sep 28	Mo`in ad-Din Abu´n Nasr Mohammad Akbar Padshah Saheb Qiran-e Sani	1759 - 1837
1837, Sep 29 - 1858, Mar 29	Seraj ad-Din Abu´l Mozaffar Mohammad Bahadur Shah Padshah	1775 - 1862

Partition of India

“A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance.”
- Jawarharal Nehru, “Tryst With Destiny” speech celebrating Indian independence

The partition of India (1947) Image by themightyquill/CC Licensed

August 14, 1947 saw the birth of the new Islamic Republic of Pakistan. India won its freedom from colonial rule at midnight the next day, ending nearly 350 years of British presence in India. When the British left, they partitioned India, creating the separate countries of India and Pakistan to accommodate religious differences between Pakistan, which has a majority Muslim population, and India, which is primarily Hindu.

Whether the partition of these countries was wise and whether it was done too soon is still under debate. Even the imposition of an official boundary has not stopped conflict between them. Boundary issues, left unresolved by the British, have caused two wars and continuing strife between India and Pakistan.

The partition of India and its freedom from colonial rule set a precedent for nations such as Israel, which demanded a separate homeland because of irreconcilable differences between the Arabs and the Jews. The British left Israel in May 1948, handing the question of division over to the UN. Unenforced UN Resolutions to map out boundaries between Israel and Palestine have led to several Arab-Israeli wars and the conflict still continues.

Reasons for Partition

By the end of the 19th century, several nationalist movements had emerged in India. Indian nationalism had expanded as the result of British policies of education and the advances made by the British in India in the fields of transportation and communication. However, British insensitivity to and distance from the people of India and their customs created such disillusionment among Indians that the end of British rule became necessary and inevitable.

While the Indian National Congress was calling for Britain to Quit India, in 1943 the Muslim League passed a resolution demanding the British Divide and Quit. There were several reasons for the birth of a separate Muslim homeland in the subcontinent, and all three parties — the British, the Congress and the Muslim League — were responsible.

As colonizers, the British had followed a divide-and-rule policy in India. In the census they categorized people according to religion and viewed and treated them as separate from each other. The British based their knowledge of the people of India on religious texts and the intrinsic differences they found in them, instead of examining how people of different religions coexisted. They also were fearful of the potential threat from the Muslims, who were the former rulers of the subcontinent, ruling India for over 300 years under the Mughal Empire.To win them over to their side, the British helped establish the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College at Aligarh and supported the All-India Muslim Conference, both of which were institutions from which leaders of the Muslim League and the ideology of Pakistan emerged. As soon as the league was formed, Muslims were placed on a separate electorate. Thus, the separateness of Muslims in India was built into the Indian electoral process.

There was also an ideological divide between the Muslims and the Hindus of India. While there were strong feelings of nationalism in India, by the late 19th century there were also communal conflicts and movements in the country that were based on religious identities rather than class or regional ones. Some people felt that the very nature of Islam called for a communal Muslim society. Added to this were the memories of power over the Indian subcontinent that the Muslims held, especially in old centers of Mughal rule. These memories might have made it exceptionally diffficult for Muslims to accept the imposition of colonial power and culture. Many refused to learn English and to associate with the British. This was a severe drawback as Muslims found that cooperative Hindus found better government positions and thus felt that the British favored Hindus. Consequently, social reformer and educator Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, who founded Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College, taught the Muslims that education and cooperation with the British was vital for their survival in the society. However, tied to all the movements of Muslim revival was the opposition to assimilation and submergence in Hindu society.

Hindu revivalists also deepened the chasm between the two nations. They resented the Muslims for their former rule over India. Hindu revivalists rallied for a ban on the slaughter of cows, a cheap source of meat for the Muslims. They also wanted to change the official script from the Persian to the Hindu Devanagri script, effectively making Hindi rather than Urdu the main candidate for the national language.

The Congress made several mistakes in their policies which further convinced the League that it was impossible to live in an undivided India after freedom from colonial rule because their interests would be completely suppressed. One such policy was the institution of “Bande Matram,” a national anthem historically linked to anti-Muslim sentiment, in the schools of India where Muslim children were forced to sing it.

The Congress banned support for the British during the Second World War while the Muslim League pledged its full support, which found favor from the British, who needed the help of the largely Muslim army. The Civil Disobedience Movement and the consequent withdrawal of the Congress party from politics also helped the league gain power, as they formed strong ministries in the provinces that had large Muslim populations. At the same time, the League actively campaigned to gain more support from the Muslims in India, especially under the guidance of dynamic leaders like Jinnah. There had been some hope of an undivided India, but the Congress’ rejection of the interim government set up under the Cabinet Mission Plan in 1942 convinced the leaders of the Muslim League that compromise was impossible and partition was the only course to take.

JAIPUR INDIA

JAIPUR

Its the only place in INDIA known as "PINK CITY " .Situated in Rajasthan the Jaipur is one of the most important cities in India from the point of tourism.Known as the Pink City because of the colour of the stone used exclusively in the walled city, Jaipur's bazaars sell embroidered leather shoes, blue pottery, tie and dye scarves and other exotic wares.Jaipur is a land of natural beauty and great history.It belongs to the tourist Golden Triangle of Delhi, Jaipur and Agra.The Royal city of Jaipur celebrates numerous festivals with full zeal all round the year. There are many Festivals in Jaipur. These festivals and fairs form an inseparable part of Jaipur's identity. The city attracts thousands of tourist from all over the world. Jaipur came into prominence after Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II established this beautiful city in 1727. Jaipur has been the cradle of many ruling dynasties and was an important cultural hub of that period. Now Jaipur is growing fast and various development projects are being undertaken by the government and private enterprises. The town planning and infrastructure development in Jaipur is quite above the mark relative to many other Indian cities.

TOURIST ATTRACTION

FORTS

*AMBER FORT ( ☎ +91 14 1253 0293.08:00-17:30.):-

 The name has nothing to do with the rather pretty pastel yellow colour; instead, the fort is named after the town of Amber, in turn named after the goddess Amba. The main sights within the fort include the Sheesh Mahal, adorned with thousands on thousands of mirror tiles on the walls and ceiling. The fort/palace grounds are sprawling and the information panels (hindi/english) are somewhat limited, so it might be worth getting an audio guide or a real guide. It's a bit of a hike up from the town, and the touristy thing to do is to hitch an elephant ride to the top (in order to get an elephant it is better to to arrive there in the morning, otherwise at midday the elephants are over. But the road that elephants pass is not so long). The elephant riding costs 900 (fixed government price) as of July 5th 2011.Also see the Amber Light Show below. Rs 25/10 for Indian/student and Rs 200/100 for foreigner/student. 

* JAIGARH FORT(☎ +91 14 1267 1848. 09:00-16:30. ):-

A 1 km walk uphill from '''Amber Fort'''. Never conquered in battle, this was considered the strongest of the three forts in the area. It is best known as the site of the world's largest cannon, the Jaivana, which was test-fired only once — according to legend, despite using only the half the design amount of gunpowder, the cannonball flew 35 km! A better reason to visit the fort, though, are the scenic gardens at the other end and the spectacular views over the Amber Fort and the hills around. The remains of the foundry where the Jaivana (and many more) were cast are also in the fort grounds.

*NAHARGARH FORT( ☎ +91 14 1518 2957.):-

The smallest of the three forts, notable primarily for excellent views over Man Sagar lake and the vast sprawl of Jaipur. The fort also houses the (relatively) compact Madhavendra Bhawan palace, although its former splendour is fading fast under a new layer of graffiti and pigeon droppings. Portions of the movie Rang De Basanti were shot at this fort. To go the area where the "Pathshala" song was shot, take a left turn as soon as you enter the fort.

Palaces[edit]

• Jal Mahal (Water Palace), (On the way to Amber Fort). A Rajput style architectured palace sits in the center of the Man Sagar lake. The lake is often dry in the winter, but summer monsoons frequently turn it into a beautiful lake filled with water hyacinths. Free on the 18th of May, as well as the Observatory and wind palace.  edit

• City Palace, (Inside the old city, close to New Gate and Hawa Mahal). An imposing blend of traditional Rajput and Mughal architecture. It is a vast palace complex occupying nearly one-seventh of the Pink City. It was originally built by Maharaja Jai Singh II. The complex is divided into a series of courtyards, sprawling gardens and buildings. It is home to several palatial structures like the Chandra Mahal, (home to present Maharajah of Jaipur),Mubarak Mahal (housing a textile museum), Diwan-e-Khas (or Hall of Private audience housing the two largest silver vessels in the world, which are duly mentioned in the Guinness book), the Diwan-e-Aam ( or Hall of Public Audience) and the gateway Ridhi Sidhi Pol (with four small doorways decorated with motifs depicting the four seasons). Rs 300, which includes also a 1-week entrance to Jaigarh Fort.  edit

Temples[edit]

• Govind Devji Temple - For Vaishnavites, particularly followers of Lord Krishna, this is the most important temple in the world after Vrindavan. Lord Krishna presiding in the temple were brought to Jaipur from Vrindavan during Mughal rein. According to popular legend, Lord Krishna's idol in the temple looks exactly like Krishna's form while his incarnation of Earth. It is located at Jainiwas Gardens, Jalebi Chowk, in the same campus as City Palace.

• Moti Doongari temple is located in the center of Jaipur city. This Temple is the main center of religion for Jaipur people. Moti Dungri is basically a small hill, which means Pearl Hill. There is a Temple and a Palace on this hill. Moti Dungri temple is dedicated to Lord Ganesha and it is said that at the time of building this city, this temple was constructed first to protect the city.

• Lakshmi Narayan Temple (aka The Marble Temple) (Birla Temple), (below the well known Moti Dungri fort). is a relatively new temple made of white marble with beautiful carvings. It covers a vast area in Jaipur city and is built in a contemporary manner. Birla Temple is completely constructed with finest high quality white marbles.sachish mittal is also know as  edit

• Akshardham Temple (at Vaishali Nagar)

• Jain Mandir (Shivdas Pura) 15-16 km from Jaipur, is a Jain temple in Shivdaspura and is well known as “Bara Padampura”. This temple comes under district Jaipur. Temple is a unique place of miracles and is famous in north India for its very beautiful statue of God Padamprabhu (The 6th Teerthankar for Jain’s). God is sitting in a crossed leg seating posture. Height of the statue is 2 ft 4" and statue is made of pure white stone. Statue was appeared while digging for foundation of a house.

• Galtaji is an ancient Hindu pilgrimage site situated 10 km from Jaipur on Jaipur-Agra highway near Sisodia Rani Garden. The main temple here is temple of Galtaji in constructed in pink stone. The temple has a number of pavilions with rounded roofs, exquisitely carved pillars and painted walls. The temple is surrounded by natural springs and reservoirs that are considered holy .There are also seven tanks or kunds here.

• Galwh Bagh (aka The Monkey Temple) and Suriya Mandir (aka The Sun Temple) are located on the Eastern edge of the city. Both locals and tourists come here to feed the surprisingly tame monkeys, use the temples, and enjoy the views. You can climb to the top of the hill and then down into the valley to see the Monkey Temple, all the while enjoying the company of countless monkeys, goats, and other animals. At the top of the hill, you turn right to reach the Sun Temple for one of the best views of the city, especially at sunset

Monuments[edit]

*Jantar Mantar, (very close to the City Palace.), ☎ +91-141-261-0494, . 9:00 a.m-4:30 p.m.. This UNESCO world heritage site is the largest of five astronomical observatories build by Maharaja Jai Singh during the period 1727-1734 in north India. The observatory consists of fourteen major geometric devices (or yantras in Hindi) for measuring time, predicting eclipses, tracking stars in their orbits, ascertaining the declinations of planets and determining the celestial altitudes etc. There is signage providing elaborate explanations for the use of each device, and guides can be hired to provide much the same information in a more digestible format.The observatory, the water and the wind palace are free on the 18th of May.

*Hawa Mahal (Palace of Breeze). Built in 1799 by Maharaja Sawai Singh as part of City Palace. It was an extension of the Zenana(women) chamber. It's purpose was to allow royal ladies to observe everyday life in the street below without being seen. It is a five storey high red sandstone structure complete with over 950 windows. The breeze (or hawa in Hindi) circulates through these windows giving the palace its name. 

*Iswari Minar Swarga Sal, Chandpol Bazaar near City Palace (Look for the big tall tower near Tripolia Gate. The entrance is not from the main street, but is around the back of the shops. You can get there from the alley that’s 50m west of the minaret along Chandpol Bazaar, there's also an entrance near the City Palace, which is 50m west of Tripolia Gate and 200m east of the minaret.). There is an alternative to the minor that's open 24/7. Just across the other side of the road (Chandpol Bazaar) from the minaret is a shopping complex with stairs up to a rooftop area where you can get basically the same view as from the minar. To get there, go through the arched gateway almost opposite the minar, then as soon as you get to the courtyard, look to the left for a metal spiral staircase and keep climbing until you reach the roof, walk around the corder to the next set of stair and go up another floor until you know you can't go any higher.

*Gatore Ki Chattriyan, (In the walled city area named Brahmpuri, the foothills of Nahargarh Fort).This is a royal cremation site of the royal rulers of Jaipur. It does not get many visitors, making it an oasis of calm and peacefulness in the frenetic city center. Many beautiful architectural details are carved into these buildings. Very worthwhile to visit.

Gardens[edit]

• Ram Niwas Garden

• Zoological Garden

• Sisodia Rani Palace and Garden

• Vidyadhar Garden

• Central Park (Entrance near Statue Circle)

Museums[edit]

• Anokhi Museum of Hand Printing, (Kheri Gate, Amber), ☎ +91 141 2530226, [9]. A beautiful clean museum dedicated to the traditional art of hand block printing textiles, this museum is housed in a recently restored heritage haveli tucked into the back streets of old Amber. Small cafe, clean toilets, small shop, friendly staff & a printer & block carver demonstrating their crafts every day.  edit

• Central Museum (Albert Hall). Included in the 5-monument ''Composite Ticket''.  edit

Activities and entertainment[edit]

• Visit the bazaar in the city centre. An evening visit is a complete assault on the senses - the colours, the sights, the sounds and the smells. There are different specialist zones, whether it's food, flowers, textiles, carved statues or plumbing. While you should always be wary (read up about gem scams thoroughly before arriving and be particularly cautious if approached by guys slightly too eager to hang out and go for drinks etc, as this can often be the beginnings of a very widespread scam which at best will waste your time and at worst cost you thousands), be sure not to completely close yourself out to the locals as one of the highlights of Rajasthan is the chance to interact with the friendly people. It is not unheard of to be invited to homes for dinner, parties, and even weddings as many middle class young people are curious of foreigners and genuinely very hospitable as is the open culture of the region (which you will not find so widely in Delhi/Agra).

The Amber son-et-lumiere

• Amber Fort Sound and Light Show, Lower Amber Fort, ☎ +91 14 1270 9162 (sel.amber@ids.co.in). 7 PM - 8 PM. Experience the history, culture and life of Amber through this spectacular show. Amitabh Bachhan narrates the story of Rajasthani kings with a script written by Gulzar. Don't forget the mosquito repellent. The light show can be watched from outside the fort, but the sound won't be audible from there. Rs 100.  edit

Lobby of the Raj Mandir Cinema

• Raj Mandir Theatre. The dazzling neon-lit exterior doesn't quite prepare you for the stunning art-deco-India-style interior. An experience in itself, and another "don't miss." Once known as the best movie theater in India, and still the best in Rajasthan, it offers an overwhelming experience. From the pushing, shoving, and general chaos in the ticket line, to an audience that laughs, cries, cheers, claps, and consistently talks through the entire film, the Raj Mandir provides an insight into Rajasthani culture. The movies themselves are always interesting; Masala movies are action, drama, mystery, suspense, and epics all wrapped into one single movie, teeming with dances and obligatory wet sari scenes, and unabashedly lifting generous amounts of plot devices from Western movies. The theater-goers are very friendly and genuinely curious about overseas visitors who come to the Raj. Expect to answer many questions about country of origin and movie likes and dislikes, as well as take photos of theater-goers themselves with their mobile phones. Don't be put off by "House Full" notices at the entrance. The box office opens again a nominal 45 minutes before the next performance, and there are usually tickets available. Box seats at Rs 120 go first, so it's worth going early to avoid disappointment. Shows at 6:30PM and 9:30PM. A great place to meet locals, with the nearby McDonald's as a central congregation spot.

• Nad Sadhna [nadsadhna.com]. Provides a platform to learn Indian Music (Vocal, Instrumental and Dance) from an experienced musician.

• B.M. Birla Auditorium and Convention Centre is located at the heart of Jaipur. This auditorium is spread over 9.8 acre, that includes a computer centre, interactive science museum, an information processing centre, library, a processing planetarium, eight research division, a dissemination cell and an auditorium. Auditorium has the capacity of 1350 people to seat and it is among the largest auditoriums of India. This auditorium is built up to international conference standards.

Other[edit]

• Statue circle.  edit

• Ramgarh.  edit

• Jaipur Photo Gallery, [10].  edit

Fairs & Festivals  Elephant Festival  Gangaur Festival  Kite Festival Jaipur  Teej Festival		Temples  Galtaji  Birla Temple  Govind Dev Ji Temple  Moti Dungri		Shopping Camel Leather Items  Jaipur Carpets  Jaipur Handicrafts  Jaipur Jewelry
Monuments  Amber Fort  City Palace Jaipur  Hawa Mahal  Jaigarh Fort  Jantar Mantar  Nahargarh Fort  Gaitore  Statue Circle		Excursions  Abhaneri  Bagru  Bairath  Karauli  Sambhar  Samode  Sanganer  Tonk  Ramgarh Lake  Sariska National Park  Ranthambore National Park		Gardens  Kanak Vrindavan Valley  Sisodia Rani Ka Bagh  Vidyadhar Garden

HOTELS:-

5 Star Deluxe Hotels in Jaipur

5 Star Hotels in Jaipur

4 Star Hotels in Jaipur

3 Star Hotels in Jaipur

Heritage Hotels in Jaipur

CLIMATE:-

Climate:	Hot Semi-Arid Type
Summer temperature :	Minimum: 25° C, Maximum: 45° C
Winter temperature:	Minimum: 5° C, Maximum: 22° C
Annual rainfall:	650 mm

Jaipur, the Pink City is the capital and the largest city of Rajasthan. With fascinating forts, magnificent palaces; this place reflects a glorious and royal past. The flamboyance of turbans, eye catchy architecture, rich culture, textiles and jewellery attract a lot of national and international tourists. The brilliance of this city can only be experienced by witnessing it. Being the city of colours, fairs and fests, this wonderful city with a royal touch to it invites a huge crowd. Some of the prominent festivals that must be enjoyed, if you plan on visiting this place, are the Elephant festival, Teej festival, Kite festival, Gangaur festival, Camel festival. One should try and visit this land during the months of October to March, as the temperature varies between 22^oC and 5^oC at that time. This pleasant weather ensures that you witness the royal city of Rajasthan with complete delight.

The weather of Jaipur is semi-arid type. Temperatures remain comparatively on the higher end all around the year. The summer season begins from April and continues till July. The temperature rises to an average of 30 ^oC. The city experiences monsoon showers in the months of August and September with frequent thunderstorms. Jaipur receives over 650 mm of rainfall each year. With pleasant weather in the month of October; November to February, are the months when city observe winters. The temperature ranges in between 5-15 ^oC during this season. There are no traces of humidity in winters but the city is dominated by the dense cover of fog in mornings and evenings. The cold waves at times lead to freezing temperature in this season. Jaipur is extremely warm during summers and cold during winters, though the nights are cooler throughout the year. The weather in summers is high on humidity and so drinking a lot of water becomes necessary in order to keep yourself fit. Even after the extremely hot summers, the monsoon season doesn't prove to be a relief either. Delay in flights due to heavy rains, disruption on roads as they are washed away are some of the problems to be experienced if you visit this place during rainy season. Also, landslides are pretty common out there in monsoon season. Therefore, the apt time to visit this richly royal city of Jaipur is in the winter season. October to March sees a great rush of travellers from India and abroad. It is indeed the ideal time for touring Jaipur and attractions nearby. This place affluent in heritage, culture and art has numerous lovely attractions that facilitate you with a refreshing experience of this enriched place.

CULTURE

Located in the eastern Rajasthan, this city of Jaipur is popular of the amazing forts and stupendous palaces. This royal town has magnificent architecture and is the first planned city of India. The buildings here are made with pink-painted sandstone which brings it the name of Pink City. With fantastic attractions all around the city, it invites tourists from all over the world. Jaipur's rich cultural heritage is displayed in the traditions, customs, lifestyle, art and architecture of this place. In fact the best understanding of Jaipur's culture can be attained through its art, music and architecture. The splendid monuments of Jaipur deserve a visit. Those huge fortresses of Mughal and Rajput reigns, the Hawa Mahal, Amber Fort, Jal Mahal aptly describe the culture of the city. Jantar Mantar of Jaipur, the largest of all five similar monuments is an observatory basically, which is indeed an architectural spectacle.

The people of this lively town are friendly and warm. Their colourful outfits and unique jewellery are the part of their culture displayed in a flamboyant way. They love to dance to the tunes of Rajasthani folk songs. Famous dances of Jaipur include Ghoomar, Chari where the dancers got to dance on a pot with a lit diya on their head. Traditional instruments like Sarangi, Ektara, and Jhalar are also played while singing folk songs. Food or the local delicacies of Jaipur also reveal the culture of the city. Jaipur's utterly delicious mangodi, papad, khichdi, buttermilk, sohan halwa have no match. Also famous for its handicrafts, Jaipur has markets flooded with handicraft items. Carved silver jewellery, kundan as well as meenakari jewellery, ivory carved sculptures, wood work and leather goods, are all so finely made that they would undoubtedly catch your eye. Known for blue pottery, miniature paintings and traditional clothes with work of bandhni, zari and zardosi, are certainly the best examples that depict rich culture of Jaipur.

Art And Crafts
The Mughal and Rajput rulers used to invite skilled artists and craftsmen from India and abroad to display and share their abilities with the people of Jaipur. Many of them settled here leading to development of Jaipur as the haven of rich art and culture. Some of the artful talents of artisans include: Bandhani; Block printing; Stone carving and Sculpture; Tarkashi; Zari, Gota, Kinari and Zardozi; Silver Jewellery; Gems, Kundan, Meenakari and Jewellery; Miniature paintings; Blue Pottery; Ivory carving; Shellac work; Leather ware, etc.

Performing Arts
This land of Jaipur has its own performing arts. The Jaipur Gharana for Kathak is widely popular and apparently an example of rich cultural heritage of Jaipur as far as performing arts is concerned. Tamasha is another such example.

Cuisine
The pink city Jaipur presents to you scrumptious cuisines that are known throughout India; dishes like Dal Bati Churma, Missi Roti, and sweets like Ghevar, Feeni, Gajak, Chauguni ke laddu, Moong Thal, to name a few. Rajasthani cuisine is full of nutrition since it's made in ghee and butter; and is generally vegetarian.

Fairs And Festivals
This city witnesses various fairs and festivals at different time of the year. Some of the festivals are Gangaur festival, Jaipur Literature festival, Kite festival, Teej festival, Shitla Mata Fair, Chaksu Fair, Elephant Fair, Chhat ka Mela in Amber during Navratri. The colourful city becomes even more lively and lovely.

People and Languages
The people of Jaipur are friendly and warm. The colourful outfits and ethnic jewellery they sport are the part of our culture exhibited in a beautiful way. They love to perform folk dances to the tunes of Rajasthani folk songs. The main language of Jaipur is Rajasthani. However, Marwari, Hindi and English are also spoken in the city.

The culture of Jaipur facilitates us with a holistic view of not only Rajasthan but also with the culture of India.

WAY TO JAIPUR

People from all parts of the world come to observe the beauty and to know about cultural legacy of Jaipur. Being the major city of the country, Jaipur is well connected to almost every corner of India via different means of public transport including air, rail and road. Every day the public transport is used by over millions of travellers travelling to and around Jaipur with various purposes and destinations. Jaipur International Airport is located about 7-10 km from the main city and can easily be reached with ease by taxi or bus. The Indian Railways on the other hand provides the best service to the passengers and as for the bus service, the roads and the highways are very well constructed and smooth with less chances of getting any dump in between the way. Read to know more about how to reach Jaipur.


By Air
The Jaipur Airport is situated at Sanganer, 7 km (domestic terminal) and 10 km (international terminal) from the main city. It connects the city to all the major parts of India as well as some of the major overseas countries. It has the facility of daily domestic flights to Delhi, Jodhpur, Udaipur, Aurangabad, Hyderabad, Goa, Kolkata, Chennai, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Bangalore, Indore and Pune. Also, it has the facility of international flights through which it connects directly to Sharjah, Muscat and Dubai. Flights to Singapore and Bangkok are also available via Delhi. Furthermore, it offers the chartered service to London and Dublin. Once you get down at the airport, hire a taxi or take a bus to reach the main city.

By Train
Jaipur is well connected to almost every part of India through the means of Indian Railways. There are several trains which connect this city to Delhi, Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Agra, Kota, Alwar, Jodhpur, Alwar, Ajmer, Kota, Chittorgarh, Bikaner, Udaipur, Barmer, Jammu, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Kolkata, Ludhiana, Pathankot, Haridwar, Indore, Gwalior, Bhopal, Jabalpur, Roorkee, and Kanpur. In addition to this, long-distance trains arrives from several other cities including Patna, Ranchi, Lucknow, Allahabad, Vadodara, Banaras, Surat, Bilaspur, Nagpur, Raipur, Puri, Bhubaneswar, Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Mysore, Mangalore, Goa, Kochi, and Kozhikode. There are three main railway junctions including Jaipur, the main station; Gandhinagar and Durgapara. Every train stops at Jaipur junction and a few of the trains stop at Gandhinagar and Durgapara. After getting down at the railway station, take an auto-rickshaw, bus or hire a taxi to reach the destination within the city. There is a special, luxurious and renowned train called as Palace on Wheels which departs from Delhi and connects all the well known destinations of Rajasthan including Jaipur, Jhalawar, Jodhpur, Alwar, Udaipur, etc.

By Road
Jaipur, the pink city is linked with the all the major cities of India through the network of National Highways 8, 11 and 12 to name a few. There's also a very good bus service between Jaipur and Delhi provided by Rajasthan State Road Transport Corporation (RSRTC) with the buses at about every half an hour to and from both sides. There are non-AC and AC Volvo buses in which the fare of the AC bus is more. From Jaipur you can board the bus from Narayan Singh Circle or the main Sindhi Camp bus stand whereas in Delhi you can take the bus from Bikaner House on Pandara Road which is next to India Gate. Also, there are some private buses which are available from Dhaula Kuan in Delhi. There are some express buses which connect various cities and towns of Rajasthan such as Bundi, Kota, etc. to Jaipur. This city is also connected to Mumbai via Ajmer, Ahmedabad, Udaipur and Vadodara and is also well linked to Agra via bus.